Lessons from experiments of programs such as Scared Straight, Crime & Delinquency 46, 354379. Best concluded, I have been unable to find a substantiated report of a child being killed or seriously injured by a contaminated treat picked up in the course of trick or treating.20 Since 1985, Best has kept his research up to date and has come to the same conclusion. Was probability sampling used? Has the research shown that the CSI Effect exists and is impacting the criminal justice system? In this section, a detailed example of a myth about crime, police, courts, and corrections will be presented to demonstrate how the myth has been dispelled through research. In order to test their hypotheses, the researchers examined sentencing data from Pennsylvania spanning four years (19891992). The items for the D.RA.MA. Many believe that there are real examples of children being harmed by razor blades, poison, or other nefarious objects placed in Halloween candy. The benefits for a department are not at the expense of the public. Studies have found that homicides related to crack cocaine were usually the product of the instability of drug market activity (i.e., buying and selling drugs can be a violent activity) and rarely the result of drug ingestion.34 After an extensive review of research studies on alcohol, drugs, and violence, Parker and Auerhahn concluded, Despite a number of published statements to the contrary, we find no significant evidence suggesting that drug use is associated with violence. However, it is hoped that the detective will continue to sort through all the evidence for confirmation or rejection of his original conclusion regarding the murder suspect. Case studies are discussed in Chapter 6. One of the most common examples of illogical reasoning is the straw man argument, which often entails either isolating a particular part of an argument before then presenting it as an entirely individual or separate position, or using a very early form of a theory to support a case while ignoring the fully developed theory itself (attacking Often these studies require the review and analysis of documents such as police reports and court records and interviews with the offender and others. No matter how you got here, two things are probably true. These professors understand that a solid understanding of research methods will enrich the qualifications of students for employment and performance in their criminal justice careers. For example, we know that cigarette smoking causes lung cancer and has other significant health impacts, so we dont smoke. . If you are concerned about the course, realize that you are not alone because most students are anxious about taking a research methods course. Common sense is important in our daily lives and is frequently correct, but, at times, it also contains inaccuracies, misinformation, and even prejudice. 78 Pate, T., A. Ferrara, R. Bowers, and J. Lorence. Second, female officers are less likely to use excessive force. Examples of selective observation in criminal justice Often continue their criminal tendencies once released (Bloom, 1999). The business of background checks on prospective employees is increasing significantly. Here's an example of an inductive argument: Observation (premise): My Welsh Corgis were incredibly stubborn and independent (specific observation of behavior). (1973). So, sampling is the same in business as it is in health education and as it is in criminal justice. However, the defendant was acquitted in only five of the 26 Durham trials. 75 Wood, P. B., and H. G. Grasmick. (he's not a real frat boy). Survey research is one of the most common research designs employed in criminal justice research. Also using an experimental design with random assignment, Yarborough evaluated the Juvenile Offenders Learn Truth (JOLT) program at the State Prison of Southern Michigan at Jackson.14 This program was similar to that of the Lifers Program, only with fewer obscenities used by inmates. Assumes events are causally related even Overall, this research showed that judges focused primarily on legal factors (offense severity and prior record) when determining the sentences of convicted offenders. Take the myth of the Halloween sadist previously discussed. This belief has changed the practices of many parents on Halloween; not allowing their children to trick-or-treat in their neighborhood and forbidding them from going to the doors of strangers. For example: A colleague screwed up an important presentation because he's lazy and incompetent (not because he also had jet lag). The keystone of inquiry is observation T/F True 2. In the this article I learned about how a James Ingraham, a 14 year-old eighth-grader was put through a cruel punishment after he was misbehaving in school. Most of the research on the biased nature of the death penalty has focused on racial inequities in the sentence. Reporting and interpreting the results of the study make up the final step in the research process. In recent years, media reports have focused on the relationship between methamphetamine use and violence; before then it was crack cocaine use and violence.32 However, media portrayals regarding the violent tendencies of drug users date back to the 1930s and the release of Reefer Madness. Illogical is defined as not making sense or going against logic. There are several instances in which media attention on a particular topic created the idea that a major problem existed when it did not. The investigation was sparked by an anonymous allegation of research irregularities. Since then, the theory has been expanded upon and extended to include other perspectives . Overall, 65% of the sample of probationers were re-arrested and 51 % were charged with and convicted of another offense. A persons expertise is typically limited to a few core areas of significant knowledge; a person is not an expert in all areas. (2006). In fact, the Commission stated there is no definitive relationship between response time and deterrence, but professional judgment and logic do suggest that the two are related in a strong enough manner to make more rapid response important.77 Basically the Commission members were stating that we dont have any research evidence that response times are important, but we know that they are. Demystifying crime and criminal justice. In response to the research on rapid response, many police departments changed the way they responded to calls for service. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland. Selective observation is choosing, either consciously or unconsciously, to pay attention to and remember events that support our personal preferences and beliefs. Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Research topics can arise from a wide variety of sources, including the findings of a current study, a question that a criminal justice agency needs to have answered, or the result of intellectual curiosity. Data analysis and statistics are discussed in Chapter 9. Survey research is discussed in Chapter 4. In addition, it is fairly rare for a police officer to have to deal with a dangerous and violent encounter or even an incident involving a crime. Criminal justice or criminology research is often conducted with the intention of providing scientific information to major decision-makers within the field who may then implement plans to handle crime based on these studies. Demystifying crime and criminal justice. This puts the criminal justice system in a difcult position, according to Quinney. Similarly, research is the scientific investigation of an issue, problem, or subject utilizing research methods. 44 Lersch, Kim. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. First, it can provide better and more objective information. 8 Lombroso-Ferrero, Gina. The research question marks the beginning of your research study and is critical to the remaining steps in the research process. 22 Pepinsky, Hal. For example, field research (discussed in Chapter 6) is used much more frequently in anthropology than in criminal justice. The ght against Prisons were already operating above capacity due to rising crime rates. Critical evaluation involves comparing the methodology used in the research with the standards established in research methods. That is why not all the examples in this text are criminal justice research examples. Although there are certainly operational similarities across criminal justice agencies, there are also nuances that exist across the over 50,000 criminal justice agencies in the United States. Questions and answers about prison reform. The Public Interest 10, 2254. The researcher is observing closely or acting as part of the group under study and is able to describe in depth not only the subjects behaviors, but also consider the motivations that drive those behaviors. For example, if a survey is developed to study the relationship between gang membership and violent delinquency, the distribution and collection of surveys from a group of high school students would occur in this step. There are certainly times when the order of the steps may be modified, but researchers typically follow the same process for each research study they complete regardless of the research topic (as depicted in Figure 2.1 in Chapter 2). The Punishment Cost of Being Young, Black, and Male. (2006). As previously stated, the basic goal of this book is to make students, as future and possibly even current practitioners in the criminal justice system, better informed and more capable consumers of the results of criminal justice research. Participants in the program were talked to and yelled at by the inmates in an effort to scare them. For example, discussing research methods in a popular culture framework may resonate with students and lead to engaged students who are more interested in the subject matter and identify with the relevance of research methods to criminal justice in general and the future careers of students, in particular. The growth of technology across the globe has led to an increase in crime. Taken altogether, the analysis revealed that African American males aged 1829 years maintained the highest odds of incarceration and the longest sentences relative to any other race, sex, and age group. The myth that the death penalty is administered fairly. 158166 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. Jimbo: You're saying that . Previously, sources of knowledge development were discussed, including authority, tradition, common sense, personal experience, and media portrayals. Circular Reasoning also called circular logic or circulus in probando is an informal logical fallacy meaning arguer uses the same reason as the conclusion. What research design will be used to collect data to answer the research questions? The biggest limitation of this study is the limited sample size. Take the course content one chapter, one week at a time. They are: Your personal journey and obstacles: Outline the major life events that brought you to this point and how those events affected your decision to pursue graduate school. Data for the study were obtained from the California Board of Prison Terms (CBPT). Second, in order to prove that a research finding is correct, a researcher must be able to replicate the finding using the same methods. Rehabilitation remained the goal of our correctional system until the early 1970s, when the efficacy of rehabilitation was questioned. Individuals accept something as true because that is the way things have always been so it must be right. Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Some additional myths about courts that research does not support include: Many criminals escape justice because of the exclusionary rule.45, Subjecting juvenile offenders to harsh punishments can reduce crime committed by juveniles.46, Public opinion is overwhelmingly in favor of imprisonment and harsh punishment for offenders.47, The death penalty brings closure and a sense of justice to the family and friends of murder victims.48, Insanity is a common verdict in criminal courts in the United States.49, Eyewitness identification is reliable evidence.50, Most people who commit crimes based on hatred, bias, or discrimination face hate crime charges and longer sentencing.51. 1. (2006). Although the belief in Halloween sadism is widespread, Best found few reported incidents and few reports of children being injured by Halloween sadism. The problems generated by each knowledge source were also discussed. In addition, research methods reduces the risk of selective observation by requiring that we measure and observe our research subjects systematically. The importance of rapid response was conveyed in a 1973 National Commission on Productivity Report despite the fact that there was very little empirical evidence upon which to base this assumption. Each chapter builds upon the previous chapters, illustrating and discussing more about the research process. Most of the felons sentenced to probation recidivated and researchers were unable to develop an accurate prediction model to improve the courts decision-making. In addition, research methods are the same across disciplines. The sentences they examined included whether a convicted defendant was incarcerated in prison or jail, and the length of incarceration in prison or jail. But you would have to drink more than 17 pints of beer to consume a medically effective dose of xanthohumol, which is almost a case of beer. Third, it allows for the objective assessment of programs. (1982). In fact, three of the replications found that those arrested for domestic violence had higher levels of continued domestic violence, so arrest did not have the deterrent effect found in the Minneapolis study. it is illogical and counterproductive to operate on policies derived primarily from politics, (2010). The case of Durham v. United States was heard in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia and offered an alternative test for criminal responsibility and insanity. Forty studies that changed criminal justice: Explorations into the history of criminal justice research. Various research designs will be covered in Chapters 47. 24 Friedrichs, David O. Many times, research topics have been previously explored but not brought to completion. Resistance to change is the reluctance to change our beliefs in light of new, accurate, and valid information to the contrary. The police work day and night to curb insecurities and evil using various crime-solving techniques known as forensic science. Prevalence, distribution, and correlates of math anxiety in college students. 84 Example is excerpted from Amy B. Thistlethwaite and John D. Wooldredge. True False Answer: True The study described below explored the issue of criminal responsibility as it applies to the insanity defense in the United States. In other words, the research questions dictate the methods used to answer them. Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury. Almost 139,000 cases were examined. Based on the results of the response time study, the researchers concluded that rapid response was not as important as police administrators had thought. Besides math anxiety, the researchers think that apprehension is caused by student indifference to the subject matter and irrelevance of the course because it does not apply to the real world. They state that student apprehension in research methods and statistics courses is due to three main factors: Taken together, the reconceptualization is known as D.RA.MA., and the combination of these three factors constitutes the D.RA.MA. It makes sense, and the program was initially touted as a success due to anecdotal evidence based on a few delinquents who turned their lives around after participation in the program. 45 Janikowski, Richard. This research expanded our knowledge beyond the impact of singular factors on sentencing to expose the interaction effects of several variables (race, gender, and age). when we prematurely jump to conclusions or argue on the basis of invalid assumptions examples; -it is possible that delinquency influences school performance just as much or more than school performance influences delinquency. The driver and passenger exited the vehicle and fled on foot. In a logical fallacy, the arguer does not provide enough evidence to support their claim. For nonemergency calls, an officer is either dispatched at a later time when the officer is available or a report is taken over the phone or through some other means. I view research methods as a subject that I will rarely use. Second, a follow-up survey was mailed to citizens whom the police had contacted during their response. 36 Buerger, Michael. Over a six-month period, Martinson and his colleagues reviewed all of the existing literature on correctional treatment published in English from 1945 to 1967. Chapter 8: Putting It All Together: Understanding and Assessing Criminal Justice Research, 9. However, every one of you will be exposed to research findings in your professional and personal lives for the remainder of your lives. Perhaps you have a quiz or exam soon. Twenty-six groups of 12 jurors were exposed to the Durham version of the trial and the case was the same each time. It is common for the results of previous research to generate new research questions and hypotheses for the researcher. In the past, it was common for police agencies to require all police applicants to meet a minimum height requirement to be considered for employment. armenians in western anatolia, like in . You might have opened this book for a number of reasons. For researchers, it may be important to replicate findings many times over so that we are assured our original finding was not a coincidence or chance occurrence. So, the data are there for the taking, but the records that are retrieved typically are not checked for errorserrors that would be obvious to human eyes. In today's criminal justice system, with the increasing numbers of offenders, the system is going to have to find away to reduce the prison population. The researcher is expected to remain objective and report the findings of the study regardless of whether the findings support their personal opinion or agenda. For some reason, even though I study, math seems unusually hard for me. Today, only New Hampshire uses a version of the Durham rule in insanity cases. However, if a person was rude and uncooperative to a police officer during a traffic stop and was let go without a citation, the person will gain knowledge from this personal experience. Researchers attributed the lack of significance to the fact that most citizens waited before calling the police. For the MNaghten version of the case, the psychiatrists stated that the defendant was mentally ill yet knew right from wrong during the crime. This paper is an analysis of a six-week Restorative Reasoning Programme that took place with 13 women in a UK women's prison. More specifically, we may assume that politicians know best about how to reduce crime and increase the effectiveness of the criminal justice system. The private companies create a system in which a computer program scrapes the public files of court systems around the country to retrieve personal data. What are the primary sources of knowledge development, and what are the problems with each? If a theory states that greed causes people to commit crime, and then says we know Jon is greedy because he committed a crime, it becomes impossible to subject the theory to the scientific process. On December 31, 2010, there were 3,158 prisoners under a sentence of death in the United States: 58 were women, or 1.8%.56 However, women account for 1012% of all murders in the United States.57 One research study found that male defendants were 2.6 times more likely than females to receive a death sentence after controlling for legally relevant factors.58, Third, has research shown that a defendants race influences his or her chance of being sentenced to death? The researchers made several recommendations to address the limitations of using probation for felony offenders. Typically, the research process begins with the selection of a research problem and the development of research questions or hypotheses (discussed further in Chapter 2). Data for the study came from probation and prison records from two counties in California. What data-gathering procedures were employed? Evaluate the quality of inductive, deductive, and causal reasoning. Even when the research evidence shows otherwise, people who work within programs may still believe they are effective. Students need to realize that research methods are essential tools for assessing agency policies and practices. Before choosing to commit a crime, the reasoning criminal evaluates the risk of apprehension, the seriousness of the expected punishment, the value of the criminal enterprise, and his or her immediate need for criminal gain (Erwin, 2003). 83 Steffensmeier, D., J. Ulmer, & J. Kramer. For example, there is little evidence that sex offender registration protects the public from sexual predators or acts as a deterrent to repeat sex offenders even though every state has a law requiring convicted sex offenders to register with local authorities. Much of this research failed to produce results consistent with the Rand study. The ability to understand research gives practitioners knowledge of the most current information in their respective fields and the ability to use this knowledge to improve the effectiveness of criminal justice agencies. The Board had been collecting comprehensive data on all offenders sentenced to prison since 1978 and on a sample of adult males from 17 counties who received probation. The goal of this research methods book is to develop you into an informed consumer of research. It is important to keep in mind that the perpetuation and acceptance of myths by the public, politicians, and criminal justice personnel has contributed to the failure of criminal justice practices and policies designed to reduce crime and improve the operations of the criminal justice system. Instead, the knowledge gained from the experience is wrong. Forty studies that changed criminal justice: Explorations into the history of criminal justice research. First, research relies on logical and systematic methods and observations to answer questions. The drugs/violence nexus: A tripartite conceptual framework. Journal of Drug Issues 15, 493506. The methods and observations are completed in such a way that others can inspect and assess the methods and observations and offer feedback and criticism. (1981). Furthermore, an expert in one area may try to use his authority in an unrelated area. If so, can the researcher approach the subject from a previously unexamined perspective? Data collection is discussed in several chapters throughout this text. It is common to draw conclusions about people and society from our personal interactions, but, in reality, our experiences are limited because we interact with just a small percentage of people in society. Researchers develop, refine, and report their understanding of crime and the criminal justice system more systematically than the public does through casual observation. For example, a professor might have her students complete a survey during class to understand the relationship between drug use and self-esteem. Informed consumers of research dont just take the results of a research study at face value because the study is in an academic journal or written by someone with a Ph.D. On a continuum, it is perceived that sentence severity increases as one moves from fines, to probation, to intermediate sanctions such as boot camps, and finally, to incarceration in prison. So, what does the research show? The circle of the reasoning never . The evaluation of research ranges from the manner in which one obtains an idea to the ways in which one writes about the research results, and understanding each step in the research process is useful in our attempts to consume research conducted by others. 54 Applegate, Brandon. Illogical reasoning: Illogical reasoning is the failure to give an appealing justification for the findings. Martinsons article provided policy makers the evidence to justify spending cuts on rehabilitative programs. The myth of prisons as country clubs. 201208 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. Results from the response time study challenged traditional beliefs about the allocation of patrol in our communities. Through critical evaluation, consumers of research break studies down into their essential elements. Los Angeles: Roxbury. Illogical Reasoning f. Resistance to Change; Overgeneralization a. Federal Probation 54, 2327. Therefore, if we only acknowledge the events that confirm our beliefs and ignore those that challenge them, we are falling victim to selective observation. Research methods can be seen as a sequential process with the first step being followed by the second step, and so on. This type of reasoning is called a syllogism. scale by constructing survey questions to measure each factor in the scale (i.e., disinterest, relevance argumentation, and math anxiety). In addition, this chapter demonstrated the critical importance of becoming an informed consumer of research in both your personal and professional lives. Syllogism is probably the most simple of the 3 types of deductive reasoning. Most government agencies, including the criminal justice system, as well as private industry, routinely rely on data analysis. Tradition knowledge relies on the knowledge of the past. For each offender, researchers had access to their personal characteristics, information on their crimes, court proceedings, and disposition. The knowledge gained may include that being disrespectful during future traffic stops will get this person out of future tickets. 19 Best, Joel. illogical reasoning ideas or arguments that are illogical ideology and politics bias in defining research problems and conducting research that stems from ideology and/or politics overgeneralization observing only a few cases and assuming what is true for them is true for all cases selective observation The more recent trend seen in the juvenile court is towards the just . We look for evidence to confirm or reject our beliefs and stop when a small amount of evidence is present; we jump to conclusions. My academy training was about four years after the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Tennessee v. Garner.7 In this case, the Court limited the use of deadly force by police to defense of life situations and incidents where the suspect committed a violent offense. This chapter began with a discussion of sources of knowledge development and the problems with each. The data for the project were collected as part of a larger experiment on preventive patrol carried out in Kansas City, Missouri, between October 1972 and September 1973.78 To determine the impact of response time, researchers speculated that the following variables would be influenced by response time: 1) the outcome of the response, 2) citizen satisfaction with response time, and 3) citizen satisfaction with the responding officer. The myth that imprisonment is the most severe form of punishment. 192200 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. 1) Stricter alcohol policies. It is also important to understand that the professors who design academic programs in criminal justice at the associate and bachelor level believe that an understanding of research methods is important for students. Earlier we discussed the process of building an argument with claims and evidence and how warrants are the underlying justifications that connect the two. The press release from Oregon State University is titled Beer Compound Shows Potent Promise in Prostate Cancer Battle. The press release leads to several newspaper articles throughout the country written on the preventative nature of drinking beer on prostate cancer development with titles such as Beer Protects Your Prostate and Beer May Help Men Ward Off Prostate Cancer. By the titles alone, this sounds great; one of the main ingredients in beer appears to thwart prostate cancer. Persuasive speakers should be concerned with what strengthens and weakens an argument. The research evidence clearly shows that offenders who murder white victims are more likely to receive a death sentence than offenders who murder black victims.59 When assessing the race of both the victim and offender, the composition most likely to receive the death penalty is when a black offender murders a white victim.60. Sampling will be discussed in Chapter 3. Even when our senses of sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell are fully operational, our minds have to interpret what we have sensed, which may lead to an inaccurate observation.
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