However the brief puppet regime of Ismail III ended in 1760, when Karim Khan felt strong enough take nominal power of the country as well and officially end the Safavid dynasty. Abbas I reformed the military and civil service and built a showpiece capital city, Isfahan, which remains one of the masterworks of Persian Islamic art and architecture. The Safavids were defeated and, as the Ottoman force moved on Tabriz, engaged in scorched-earth combat. In the sixteenth century, carpet weaving evolved from a nomadic and peasant craft to a well-executed industry with specialization of design and manufacturing. Want to cite, share, or modify this book? (credit: Shah Isma'il, History of Shah Isma'il, by Mu'in Musavvir, Isfahan, Iran by Muin Musavvir/British Library/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain), The interior of the Armenian Christian Holy Savior Cathedral in Isfahan, built in 1606, incorporates both Christian imagery, such as scenes from the life of Christ, and Islamic-style decorative tilework. It became more identifiably Shi'a in its orientation around the year 1400. In their view of Islam, any pious man who followed the example of Muhammad could lead the Muslim community. At its zenith, during the long reign of Shah Abbas I, the empire's reach comprised Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. then you must include on every physical page the following attribution: If you are redistributing all or part of this book in a digital format, For instance, the Qajar dynasty (17891925), the first major dynasty to succeed the Safavids, continued the tradition of Safavid book arts, painting, and architecture. Before the principal phases in the development of the Safavid administrative system are discussed in detail, a brief outline of the Safavid administrative and social structure may be helpful. To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org Two distinct schools of painting developed: the Turkmen school in western Iran and the Timurid school based in Herat (in todays Afghanistan). At the height of their reign, the Safavids controlled not . When the Safavid state weakened in its later years, the ulama were able to step in and use their newly acquired wealth to benefit their communities. To further legitimize his power, Ismail I also added claims of royal Sassanian heritage after becoming Shah of Iran to his own genealogy. Tahmasps grandson Abbas I, generally considered the strongest Safavid shah as well as one of the greatest rulers in Iranian history, found himself compelled to take up arms once again (Figure 4.21). This encouraged pilgrimages across the great stretch of the Safavid empire, in places such as Karbala and Najaf, two cities in central Iraq. The Safavid family later claimed that Safi al-Din was descended from the Prophet through Muhammads daughter Fatima and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib. The conversion efforts of the Safavids have left long legacies in the Islamic world. Bihzad, the famed miniaturist from Herat, was commissioned by Shah Ismail to direct this royal workshop. In addition to fighting its perennial enemies, the Ottomans and Uzbeks, as the seventeenth century progressed, Iran had to contend with the rise of two more neighbors. When Ismail crowned himself Shah in 1501, most of Irans population was Sunni. Through this alliance many members of the ulama became landowners themselves, creating a religious aristocracy that gave them a level of political independence. As the Safavid order developed, its members intermarried with other Turkic groups such as the Turcomen, Lar, and Bakhtiyari, and with Georgian, Armenian, and Pontic Greek Christians within their lands and bordering territories. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). By the seventeenth century, trade routes between East and West had shifted away from Iran, causing a decline in commerce and trade. There had been, however, Shi'a communities in some cities like Qom and Sabzevar as early as eighth century. Iran also continued to face threats from outside. The Safavid empire was founded by the Safavids.They became a centralized government. The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo The order in Ardabil was founded in the thirteenth century by the Sufi master Zahed Gilani, and little is known about its beliefs and practices in its . The Safavids declared Shia Islam the state religion of Iran in the early 1500s, and it remains so to this day, encompassing about 10 percent of the worldwide Muslim population. The Shia movement originated with a dispute over Muhammads successor after his death in 632. Tahmasp faced several challenges at home and abroad, however. By 1511, however, Ismails troops had driven the Uzbek people across the Oxus River, establishing the eastern borders of modern Iran. Thus, the end of his reign, 1666, marked the beginning of the end of the Safavid dynasty. Power was shifting to a new class of merchants, many of them ethnic Armenians, Georgians, and Indians. Sunnis respect Ali and all the Twelve Imams, but they do not believe the Twelve alone were divinely chosen to lead the Muslim community. Except for Shah Abbas II, the Safavid rulers after Abbas I were largely ineffectual. Safavid military history had three phases. Never was the Divine Right of Kings more fully developed than by the Safavid shahs. The army divisions were: Ghulams ("crown servants or slaves" usually conscripted from Armenian, Georgian, and Circassian lands), Tofongchis (musketeers), and Topchis (artillery-men). The Ottomans sued for peace in 1612, relinquishing the Caucasus to the Iranians. They sought to control these populations by enslaving or deporting their members, and nobles were often requested to convert to Shiism. During his reign, the official language at the royal court was Azerbaijanian. The Safavids were poorly armed, while the Ottomans had muskets and artillery. Soon after the Safavids rose to power, they established Twelver Shiism (the largest branch of Shia, Safavid art and architecture reflected this adoption of a Shia identity. (credit: Portrait of Shah Ismail I of Persia by Uffizi Gallery/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain), This detail from a series of seventeenth-century paintings decorating the walls of the Chehel Sotoun Palace in Isfahan, Iran, depicts Shah Abbas I, who ruled over Iran at the height of the Safavid dynastys power. The Safavids began not as a political dynasty, but as the hereditary leaders of a Sufi order based in the city of Ardabil, located in todays northwestern Iran. Shi'a's sacred sites were much closerin Iraq, captured by the Safavids in 1623 (but surrendered again to the Ottomans in 1639). Second, it brought the royal workshops closer to the silk route, making it easier for the Safavids to control the sale of Persian silk. Mirror mosaics were used in religious spaces as well, especially in Shia mosques and shrines to important Shia saints. This system brought the brightest and most talented into government service while preventing the development of an entrenched and unchecked aristocracy. Junayd believed the Safavids should use their popular religious mandate to seek military and political power for themselves, and he found Shia doctrine more appropriate for his vision. The pope also hoped Abbas would allow the construction of a cathedral in his new capital city of Isfahan, but on their arrival his emissaries found three Roman Catholic churches already there (Figure 4.24). The main imports were specie, textiles (woolens from Europe, cottons from Gujarat), spices, metals, coffee, and sugar. Creative Commons Attribution License As the Safavid dynasty approached the middle of the eighteenth century, the last shahs took less and less interest in foreign and local affairs, and retreated to the interior life of the palace. After being sheltered by allies, the twelve-year-old Ismail emerged from exile in 1499 claiming to be the Mahdi or messiah and began rallying the Qizilbash troops who had fought for his father and brother. In fact, from Sheikh Junayd to Sheikh Ismail Ithe founder of the Safavid Empireall ruling Sheikhs of the Safavids had Turcoman mothers. Presently, there is a community of nearly 1.7 million people who are descendants of the tribes deported from Kurdistan to Khurasan (Northeastern Iran) by the Safavids. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Buwayhids, who were of Zeydi a branch of Shi'ism ruled in Fars, Isfahan, and Baghdad. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. About 95 percent of Shia also believe Ali was the first of twelve infallible leaders chosen by God, so this sect is often called the Twelvers. } The Safavids ultimately succeeded in establishing a new Persian national monarchy. The city was designed as a treat for the senses, employing artistic motifs in tilework and calligraphy, broad sweeping arches and domes that mimicked the sky, the sounds of running water and wind blowing through leaves, and the scents of flowering shrubs and trees carried on the breeze. Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. Many of these are now symbols of Iranian nationhood. He had effective control under Shah Tahmasp II and then ruled as regent of the infant Abbas III until 1736, when he had himself crowned shah. The patterns on Tahmasps robe have been embellished with gold. Safi al-Din is believed to have come from a family of Kurds who spoke Azeri. ), Reflections on the social and economic structure of Safavid Persia at its zenith, Artisans and Guild Life in the later Safavid period, Quis custodiet custodes? Wealthy patrons commissioned artistslike those in the studio of Shah Tahmaspto paint these miniatures either to illustrate books or to be kept as a separate piece of art in an album of similar works. The more than century of tug-of-war accentuated the Sunni and Shi'a rift in Iraq. In 1598, Abbas moved his capital from Qazvin to Isfahan in the central Iranian plateau, far from the constantly shifting borders with the Ottomans and Uzbeks and closer to the Persian Gulf and the newly arrived traders of the British and Dutch East India Companies. Has data issue: false He also used his new force to dislodge the Portuguese from Bahrain (1602) and, with the English navy, from Hormuz (1622) in the Persian Gulf (a vital link in Portuguese trade with India). Twelvers hold that the twelfth and final imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, went into mystical hiding in the ninth century and will return, along with Jesus, to defeat evil on earth and herald the Day of Judgment. Fresco, c. 1597 C.E., Ali Qapu Palace (photo: The palaces of the Safavid era, such as the, Shah Mosque (Royal Mosque), Isfahan, Iran, begun 1611 (photo: Diego Delso, CC BY-SA 4.0). The Safavids began not as a political dynasty, but as the hereditary leaders of a Sufi order based in the city of Ardabil, located in today's northwestern Iran. Shiisms rise created a new religious hierarchy in Iran. However, the original ancestral line of the Safavids was a religious order of Sufi mystics that lived in Ardabil, a city now in Azerbaijan (Sufism is the mystical branch of Islam that originated during the, Shah Ismail, the founder of the Safavid dynasty, rejoined the western and eastern halves of the Iranian plateau through military achievement. please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. To save content items to your account, Tabriz was the center of this industry. At the time, he governed only Azerbaijan and part of the Caucasus. 20th and Pattison, Philadelphia (source), The dedication of the Persian Building at the Philadelphia Sesquicentennial Exhibition, October 6, 1926. For the purposes of this chapter the period to be covered runs from 907/1501 to 1148/1736, one of the most remarkable ages in Iran's history. The country was repeatedly raided on its frontiersKerman by Baluchi tribesmen in 1698, Khorasan by Afghans in 1717, constantly in Mesopotamia by peninsula Arabs. Royal and elite women often funded the construction or maintenance of caravansaries, demonstrating the value of trade to both the state and individual wealth. Despite falling revenues and military threats, later shahs were said to have had lavish lifestyles. Ismail also invited foreign Shiites living in places where they were persecuted by the Sunni majority to move to Iran, promising them land and protection. The stability of the Safavid system allowed art and culture to flourish; the Safavid era is considered one of the high points of Perso-Islamic culture. The art of these miniature paintings relies on a style called nonrepresentational. Instead of depicting a scene naturalistically, it uses forced or even impossible perspectives to show action on multiple tiers, revealing activity behind doors or walls that some of the subjects in the painting cannot see. Known as, Muqarnas and mirror mosaics, outdoor portal, Chehel Sotoun (photo: Amir Pahaei, CC BY-SA 4.0). Increased contact with distant cultures in the seventeenth century, especially Europe, provided a boost of inspiration to Iranian artists who adopted modeling, foreshortening, spatial recession, and the medium of oil painting (Shah Abbas II sent Zaman to study in Rome). Our mission is to improve educational access and learning for everyone. Sunnis who resisted conversion but remained in Iran faced death. He also made Efahn the capital of Persia and fostered commerce and the arts, so that Persian artistic achievement reached a high point in his reign . Like the Ottomans and Mughals, the Safavids developed a powerful military, ran a strong and well-organized central state, and fostered a climate in which artistic and intellectual culture flourished. Although the Safavids were eventually able to reestablish authority, they never achieved their earlier level of control. By agreement, the Safavids would attack the Ottomans whenever the Ottomans attacked the Habsburgs to divide the Ottoman army between two fronts of battle and thereby weaken it. Bureaucracy and landed class who were considered the middle classes. The Common people were the lowest class on the pyramid in which they mainly consisted of farmers and herders. Despite these similarities, however, significant differences . One of the most renowned Muslim philosophers, Mulla Sadra (1571-1640), lived during Shah Abbas I's reign and wrote the Asfar, a meditation on what he called "meta philosophy," which brought to a synthesis the philosophical mysticism of Sufism, the theology of Shi'ism, and the Peripatetic and Illuminationist philosophies of Avicenna and Suhrawardi Maqtul (1155-1191). It was founded by Isml I, who, by converting his people from Sunnite to Shite Islam and adopting the trappings of Persian monarchy, planted the seeds of a unique national and religious identity. Shah Ism'l I, who established the Safavid dynasty in 907/15012, considered himself to be the living emanation of the godhead, the Shadow of God upon earth, and the representative of the Hidden Imm by virtue of direct descent from the Seventh Imm of the Twelver (Ithn'ashariyya) Sh'a, Ms al-Kzim. Throughout the rest of the decade, Ismail I fended off attacks from the Ottomans, stamped out the remnants of a rival faction, called the Ak Koyunlu, and continued to expand his territoryHamadan in 1503, Shiraz and Kerman in 1504, Najaf and Karbala in 1507, Van in 1508, Baghdad in 1509, Khorasan and Herat in 1510. The emergence of the Safavids marked the first time the region was ruled by Persian kings since the. Download full paper File format: .doc, available for editing GRAB THE BEST PAPER 92.2% of users find it useful As the Safavids continued to push westward into Ottoman territory, Bayezids son Selim I responded by invading Iranian Azerbaijan, laying waste to Tabriz in 1514 and attempting to destroy the Qizilbash. In 1736, Nader deposed the infant Abbas III and crowned himself shah, bringing the Safavid Empire to an end and establishing the short-lived Afsharid dynasty. We do know that Zahed appointed his son-in-law and disciple Safi al-Din Ardabili to succeed him, which angered his family and some of his followers. Abbas I first fought the Uzbeks, recapturing Herat and Mashhad, in 1598. Ismail I continued to expand his base in northwestern Iran. The article analyses the social and political structure of the Safavid Empire. This genealogy was most likely invented by court historians during the sixteenth-century reign of Shah Ismail I. The Safavid dynasty had its origin in the Safavid order of Sufism, which was established in the city of Ardabil in the Iranian Azerbaijan region. The subjects, even if they sponsored the work, are generally idealized rather than actual persons. then you must include on every digital page view the following attribution: Use the information below to generate a citation. History of the Safavids from Iran Chamber, Artistic and cultural history of the Safavids from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Safavid_Empire&oldid=1092454, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. The Qizilbashi tribes were essential to the military of Iran until the rule of Shah Abbas Itheir leaders were able exercise enormous influence and participate in court intrigues (assassinating Shah Ismail II, for example). Christians elsewhere in the Safavid realm, however, were given considerable freedom to build churches and honor their own customs and beliefs. His painting and calligraphic style influenced Iranian artists for much of the Safavid period, which came to be known as the Isfahan school. This strengthening of direct ties between the ulama and the people, and the separation of the religious establishment from the state, is believed to be one of the reasons Shiism long outlasted the Safavid era. They were originally a religious brotherhood who became more powerful because of warlords and political marriages. This led inevitably to an assumption of kingly infallibility. Not only had Ismails forces occupied the empires border cities, but he had begun recruiting for his army among the ethnic Turkish tribes of eastern Anatolia and encouraging the Shia Muslims in Ottoman lands to revolt against their Sunni rulers. The other faction wished the leadership to remain within Muhammads biological family and backed Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammads cousin and son-in-law, whom they believed the Prophet had chosen as his successor. The Silk Road, which led through northern Iran to India, revived in the sixteenth century. The city center was unique. Moreover, Shah Abbas's conversion to a ghulam-based military, though expedient in the short term, had, over the course of a century, weakened the country's strength by requiring heavy taxation and control over the provinces. Exquisitely detailed miniatures. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia: Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed. Culture flourished under Safavid patronage. His son Ali Mirza took his place, but within a few years his capital at Ardabil was conquered by his enemies. They wanted to spread "Shiism by military means." They viewed the leader of the Empire with reverence, and they. However, beneath the shah and the powerful elites, the Safavid hierarchy was unique for its time in being largely based on merit; worth and talent, not status or birth, were the keys to upward mobility. He was able to reverse many of Irans territorial losses to the Russians and Ottomans; however, he had no interest in sharing power. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. For this reason, most Shia movements developed far outside the control of these caliphates, in places like Morocco, Yemen, Iran, and central Asia. (credit: Shah Tahmasp in the mountains by Freer Gallery of Art/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain), This Persian miniature produced in the studio of Shah Tahmasp depicts the Feast of Sada, a mythical event that celebrates the discovery of fire. Despite the strong rivalry between the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals, all three empires produced paintings of this type (Figure 4.27). Published online by Cambridge University Press: Browne, "A Literary History of Persia," Vol. Outside of Iran, Safavid art was the portal to the wider world of Persian art and architecture when art historians first began studying Islamic art in the early nineteenth century. According to many historians, the Safavid empire marked the beginning of modern Persia. Though the majority of Muslims in Azerbaijan and Iran considered themselves Shia by the time the Safavid era ended in 1736, Nader Shah attempted to restore Sunnism as the dominant sect. After the Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258, the Sunni caliphate became a weak figurehead position that held only symbolic authority. Although at first he was able to negotiate safe passage for his army, the Shirvanshahs, already uneasy about Haydars growing power, used his eventual attack on one of their cities as an excuse to declare war on the Safavids. Abbs I (r. 15881629) brought the dynasty to its peak; his capital, Efahn, was the centre of afavid architectural achievement. Even those in hereditary positions had to prove themselves capable or be replaced. In the following centuries, this religious schism would both cement Iran's internal cohesion and national feelings and provoke attacks by its Sunni neighbors. In the early eighteenth century under the reign of Tsar Peter the Great, Russia began to encroach on the northern shores of the Caspian Sea and to compete for influence in the Caucasus. The Turkmen tribes ( uymaq) that followed the Safavid rulers were known as the . Silk was akin to gold in this era, and Safavid silk was renowned for both the high quality of its raw silk, as well as the exquisite designs of their embroidered textiles. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. Roger M. Savory, "Safawidsiii, The establishment of the Safawid state,". He captured Tabrz from the Ak Koyunlu and became shah of Azerbaijan (1501) and Persia (1502). The Safiviyeh came to be led by a fifteen-year old, Ismail I. The Ardabil Carpet, Maqsud of Kashan, Persian: Safavid Dynasty, silk warps and wefts with wool pile (25 million knots, 340 per sq. Nevertheless, Safavid rulers were aggressive toward the Armenians, Georgians, and other Christians in the Caucasus region, whom they considered potentially rebellious. He recognized the ineffectualness of his army, which was consistently being defeated by the Ottomans who had captured Georgia and Armenia and by Uzbeks who had captured Mashhad and Sistan in the east. While Safi al-Dins origins are lost to history, it is generally believed that he came from a family of Azeri-speaking Kurds, although even this is uncertain. Due to his fear of assassination, Shah Abbas either put to death or blinded any member of his family who aroused his suspicion. Content may require purchase if you do not have access. Muammad Mumin, A Young Lady Reclining After a Bath, leaf from the Read Persian Album Herat (Afghanistan), 1590s, 37.8 x 24.1 cm, MS M.386.5r (The Morgan Library and Museum), Around the middle of the sixteenth century, a trend developed for stand-alone illustrations of popular stories, including the, Rather than confined within the binding of books, individual miniatures were mobile. OpenStax is part of Rice University, which is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit. The elegantly baroque, yet famously misnamed, "Polonaise" carpets were made in Iran during the seventeenth century. Mar 31, 2023 OpenStax. are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written In these paintings, artists used mineral-based dyes, which produced brilliant and long-lasting colors (Figure 4.26). ISBN links support NWE through referral fees, Establishment of Shi'ism as the state religion, Conflict between Turcomans and Persians during the Safavid period, E. Yarshater, "Language of Azerbaijan, vii., Persian language of Azerbaijan,". They formed an early alliance with merchants, for instance, establishing and administering vaqfs to protect the merchants property and assets. First, he bargained for peace with the Ottomans in 1590, giving away territory in the north-west. The Safavid Empire at its 1512 borders. The Safavid era witnessed a political, religious and military reorganisation and unification of which Iran as it stands today is in no small degree the legacy. Safi al-Din renamed the order after himselfSafaviyyaand made a number of reforms that reshaped it from a local order to a religious movement that sought followers from around Iran and neighboring countries. While Naqsh-e Jahan Square provided a focus, the city also featured a broad tree-lined avenue called the Chahar Bagh, stretching over four kilometers from the square to a royal country estate (Figure 4.28). He had completely driven out the Afghans, who were still occupying Persia, by 1730.
Randy Owen Family Tree,
5 Dependent Variables Of Organizational Behavior,
Companies That Donate To First Responders,
Articles P